5D Library › 酮体代谢、β-羟丁酸信号转导与间歇性禁食的生物能量学 · English

第六章 生酮适应期:肾脏、钠与水

头几天为什么难受

许多人在开始很低碳水化合物的饮食或较长时间的禁食后,头几天会感到疲乏、头晕、头痛、心悸、站起来眼前发黑,或者小腿抽筋,网上常把这称为「酮流感」。

证据

关于「酮流感」的系统研究很少。博斯托克等人分析了网络论坛上的自述,发现常见的症状包括疲乏、头痛、头晕、恶心和「脑雾」,多数在开始后第一周内出现、几天到几周内缓解 (Bostock et al. 2020)。这类自述资料有明显的选择偏倚,不能说明发生率,也不能确定原因。

一个被普遍接受的生理解释与肾脏对钠和水的处理有关。本章用两个简化模型说明这一解释。

胰岛素与肾脏的钠

胰岛素除了调节血糖,还作用于肾小管,促进钠的重吸收。

证据

德弗朗佐等人在健康人中进行胰岛素钳夹实验,在保持血糖不变的条件下提高胰岛素水平,发现尿钠排出明显减少,而这种作用与血糖和滤过负荷的变化无关 (DeFronzo et al. 1975)。

反过来,当碳水化合物摄入骤减、胰岛素下降时,肾脏的钠重吸收减少,尿中排出的钠和水增多,这就是排钠利尿。几天之内,肾素–血管紧张素–醛固酮系统会被激活,把钠的排出拉回来;醛固酮促进钠的重吸收,同时也增加钾的排出。

推导

一个肾脏钠处理的示意模型:胰岛素指数在一天左右降到低水平,产生额外的排钠驱动;醛固酮在约三天内逐渐跟上,抵消这一驱动;细胞外液的容量随细胞外液中的钠总量变化(按每升 140 mmol 计);醛固酮升高时钾的排出增加。比较两种情况:照常摄入盐,以及同时大幅减少盐的摄入。

# The 'keto-adaptation' days, as a toy model of renal sodium handling (illustrative parameters).
# Insulin promotes sodium reabsorption in the kidney (DeFronzo et al. 1975); when carbohydrate intake is cut
# sharply, the insulin index I falls over about a day, and sodium excretion rises (natriuresis).
# Over several days the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system pushes back (adaptation variable a).
# Extracellular fluid (ECF) volume follows total ECF sodium at 140 mmol/L. Potassium excretion rises
# with aldosterone. Units: mmol, litres, days. dt = 0.01 day.
import math

def run(na_intake, days=10, k_intake=70.0):
    Na0 = 140 * 14.0                    # ~14 L ECF at 140 mmol/L
    Na, a, k_extra, out = Na0, 0.0, 0.0, []
    base = 150.0                        # usual intake the body is adapted to (mmol/day)
    dt = 0.01
    for i in range(int(days / dt) + 1):
        t = i * dt
        I = 0.3 + 0.7 * math.exp(-t / 1.0)
        n = 1.6 * (1 - I)                               # extra natriuretic drive
        excr = base * (Na / Na0) ** 4 * (1 + n - a)     # pressure/volume feedback + insulin effect
        if abs(t - round(t)) < dt / 2:
            out.append((round(t), excr, Na / 140 - 14.0, k_extra))
        Na += (na_intake - excr) * dt
        a += (0.8 * n - a) / 3.0 * dt                   # aldosterone catches up over ~3 days
        k_extra += k_intake * 0.4 * a * dt              # extra K lost with aldosterone
    return out

for intake, label in ((150, "usual salt intake kept"), (80, "salt intake also cut")):
    print(f"{label} ({intake} mmol sodium/day):")
    print("   day | Na excreted mmol/day | ECF volume change L | cumulative extra K lost mmol")
    for d, e, dv, k in run(intake):
        if d in (0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10):
            print(f"   {d:3d} | {e:20.0f} | {dv:19.2f} | {k:27.0f}")
# usual salt intake kept (150 mmol sodium/day):
#    day | Na excreted mmol/day | ECF volume change L | cumulative extra K lost mmol
#      0 |                  150 |                0.00 |                           0
#      1 |                  219 |               -0.34 |                           1
#      2 |                  202 |               -0.79 |                           6
#      3 |                  179 |               -1.08 |                          16
#      5 |                  151 |               -1.26 |                          46
#      7 |                  142 |               -1.19 |                          86
#     10 |                  142 |               -1.01 |                         155
# salt intake also cut (80 mmol sodium/day):
#    day | Na excreted mmol/day | ECF volume change L | cumulative extra K lost mmol
#      0 |                  150 |                0.00 |                           0
#      1 |                  194 |               -0.75 |                           1
#      2 |                  164 |               -1.47 |                           6
#      3 |                  135 |               -1.96 |                          16
#      5 |                  101 |               -2.47 |                          46
#      7 |                   87 |               -2.66 |                          86
#     10 |                   80 |               -2.72 |                         155
模型中细胞外液容量的变化。照常摄入盐时,容量在头五天下降约 1.3 升,然后部分恢复;同时减盐时,下降更多、恢复更慢。参数是示意性的。

模型再现了这一解释的几个要点。第一,排钠在头一两天最多,然后随醛固酮的代偿而回落。第二,细胞外液在头五天下降约 1.3 升;如果同时大幅减少盐的摄入(许多人开始低碳水饮食时也会少吃加工食品,盐摄入随之减少),下降接近 2.7 升,而且十天内没有恢复。细胞外液与血容量的减少,可以解释站起来头晕、心跳加快等症状。第三,醛固酮的升高增加钾的排出,这可能与部分人的乏力和肌肉痉挛有关。

注

本书不给电解质补充的剂量。 是否需要、需要多少钠、钾或镁,取决于个人的血压、肾功能、心脏情况和正在服用的药物。高血压、心力衰竭、肾病患者以及服用利尿剂或某些降压药的人,自行增加钠或钾的摄入可能有危险。如果出现明显的心悸、晕厥或持续的肌肉痉挛,应停止尝试并就医,而不是自行补充。

糖原与水

头几天体重的快速变化,还有另一个与钠无关的来源:糖原的储存伴随着水。

证据

奥尔松与萨尔廷发现,全身水分随肌糖原的增减而变化,约为每克糖原 3–4 克水 (Olsson and Saltin 1970);后来的肌肉活检研究给出约 3 克 (Fernández-Elías et al. 2015)。

推导

几种情况下动用的糖原及其结合的水(储量为示意性的:成人肝糖原约 90 克,骨骼肌约 400 克),与细胞外液的减少放在一起比较。

# Why the scale moves fast in the first days of a very-low-carbohydrate diet or a fast, and why
# most of that early change is not fat. Glycogen is stored with water: roughly 3 g of water per g of
# glycogen in human muscle (estimates in the literature range from about 3 to 4 g).
# Stores are illustrative for an adult: liver ~90 g, skeletal muscle ~400 g when well fed.
WATER_PER_G = 3.0
scenarios = {
    "overnight fast (12 h)":           {"liver": 35, "muscle": 0},
    "36 h fast":                       {"liver": 80, "muscle": 60},
    "first week of a ketogenic diet":  {"liver": 60, "muscle": 150},
}
ECF_SODIUM_L = 1.2      # litres of extracellular fluid lost with sodium (from the previous program)
FAT_KCAL = 7700         # kcal per kg of adipose tissue (approximate)
for name, lost in scenarios.items():
    g = lost["liver"] + lost["muscle"]
    water = g * WATER_PER_G / 1000
    extra = ECF_SODIUM_L if "week" in name else 0.0
    print(f"{name:31s}: glycogen used {g:3d} g -> glycogen + bound water {g / 1000 + water:.2f} kg"
          + (f", plus ~{extra:.1f} L extracellular fluid" if extra else ""))
# For comparison only (not a target): the energy of adipose tissue matching a 500 kcal/day gap for a week
print(f"   (a 500 kcal/day deficit for 7 days corresponds to ~{500 * 7 / FAT_KCAL:.2f} kg of adipose tissue)")
# overnight fast (12 h)          : glycogen used  35 g -> glycogen + bound water 0.14 kg
# 36 h fast                      : glycogen used 140 g -> glycogen + bound water 0.56 kg
# first week of a ketogenic diet : glycogen used 210 g -> glycogen + bound water 0.84 kg, plus ~1.2 L extracellular fluid
#    (a 500 kcal/day deficit for 7 days corresponds to ~0.45 kg of adipose tissue)

一夜禁食大约只动用几十克肝糖原,连同结合的水约 0.14 千克;生酮饮食的第一周,动用的肝糖原与一部分肌糖原连同结合的水约 0.84 千克,再加上约 1.2 升的细胞外液。两者合计约 2 千克,而同一周里与 500 千卡能量缺口对应的脂肪组织只有约 0.45 千克。所以,开始低碳水饮食头一周体重的快速下降,大部分是水,不是脂肪;恢复吃碳水化合物后,这部分体重也会很快回来。这不是失败,也不是成功,只是糖原与水的生理。

本章小结

开始很低碳水饮食或禁食的头几天,胰岛素下降使肾脏排出更多的钠和水,细胞外液减少;醛固酮在几天内代偿,同时增加钾的排出。这可以解释头晕、心悸和乏力等常见症状,但关于「酮流感」的系统研究很少。头一周体重的快速变化大部分来自糖原及其结合的水与细胞外液。下一章回到古典文献,看看古人怎样谈论「不吃」。

参考文献

Bostock, Emmanuelle C. S., Kenneth C. Kirkby, Bruce V. Taylor, and Jason A. Hawrelak. 2020. “Consumer Reports of ‘Keto Flu’ Associated with the Ketogenic Diet.” Frontiers in Nutrition 7: 20.
DeFronzo, Ralph A., C. Robert Cooke, Reubin Andres, Gerald R. Faloona, and Paul J. Davis. 1975. “The Effect of Insulin on Renal Handling of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Phosphate in Man.” Journal of Clinical Investigation 55 (4): 845–55.
Fernández-Elías, Valentín E., Juan F. Ortega, Rachael K. Nelson, and Ricardo Mora-Rodriguez. 2015. “Relationship Between Muscle Water and Glycogen Recovery After Prolonged Exercise in the Heat in Humans.” European Journal of Applied Physiology 115 (9): 1919–26.
Olsson, K.-E., and B. Saltin. 1970. “Variation in Total Body Water with Muscle Glycogen Changes in Man.” Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 80 (1): 11–18.

Fan, Y. (2026). Ketone Metabolism, β-Hydroxybutyrate Signalling and the Bioenergetics of Intermittent Fasting: From the Randle Cycle and Epigenetic Inhibition to Autophagy Kinetics, Read Beside Classical Chinese Fasting Texts [酮体代谢、β-羟丁酸信号转导与间歇性禁食的生物能量学] (Version 1.0.0). 5D Library. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23753263 · Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).